The Basic Principles of the Old Testament Priesthood and Prophecy (2)

Author: Hieromartyr Hilarion (Troitsky), Archbishop of Vereya

2. PROPHECY

Old Testament prophecy was the greatest phenomenon of the Old Testament religion, the main nerve of the religious life of the people. The Jewish religion is the religion of the prophets. The prophets are the greatest and most exalted figures of the Old Testament. Even those who hold extremely negative views on the facts of biblical history bow before them. Those who see nothing in the entire Bible except the natural and organic, although they see in the prophets only a political “opposition”, still consider the prophets to be outstanding figures, heroes of the spirit. The books of the Old Testament, for the most part, had prophets as their authors, provide very rich material for the precise definition of the principles of prophecy. These principles, even more than the principles of the priesthood, can be determined from a philological analysis of the terms by which prophets are called in the Bible. There are three such terms: nabi, ro’е, and hoze. The most commonly used and most typical term is undoubtedly “nabi”; the terms ro’е and hoze emphasize more the intimate side of the personal life and personal experiences of the prophet, while nabi defines the prophet in his historical-religious life and activity.4 Nabi therefore denotes a person who, being himself taught, transmits what has been taught to him actively and consciously to others. Such word formation completely preserves the active character in the meaning of nabi, and the very process of forming nabi from naba, a verbal noun with an active meaning from a verb with a passive meaning, also clarifies those two different moments, of which in the first the prophet is a receptive, passive person, and in the second, a transmitting, active one.5 Therefore, Blessed Jerome calls prophets teachers of the people (doctores). In explaining the active meaning of the word nabi, it is not customary to pass by the most typical place – Exod. 7:1–2. The Lord said to Moses, who refused the embassy, ​​referring to his speechlessness: I have made you as God to Pharaoh, and Aaron your brother shall be your prophet; you shall speak to him all that I command you, and Aaron your brother shall speak to Pharaoh. Here the word nabi means one who conveys the words of one person to another. The Lord said of Aaron in another case: I know that he can speak… and he shall speak for you (Moses) to the people; therefore he shall be your mouth (Exod. 4:14, 16). Obviously, “prophet” (Exod. 7:1) corresponds to “mouth” (Exod. 4:16). Aaron was the “mouth” of Moses, as is evident from Exodus 4:30. The prophet Jeremiah also calls himself the mouth of Jehovah (see Jer. 15:19). The corresponding meaning is preserved by the philological equivalent of nabi in Greek – prof’thj. Profhthj can be philologically interpreted as composed of prT – for and fhm… – I say. According to such an interpretation, prof’thj would mean one who speaks for someone. A prophet is therefore one who proclaims to people what God reveals to him. In this sense, Blessed Augustine calls prophets speakers of the words of God to people who were unable or unworthy to hear God Himself. It should be noted that in the Bible there are prophets of Baal (nebi’ej habaal) and prophets of Asherah (nebi’ej haaschera) (see: 1 Kings 18:25, 29, 40, 19:1; 2 Kings 10:19), but there is also a special term for pagan prophets – kosemim (see: Deut. 18:10, 14; 1 Samuel 6:2, etc.) from the verb kasam – to conjure; the Jewish prophets of Jehovah are never called kosemim. This is the Old Testament terminology of prophets. It clearly emphasizes that, on the one hand, the prophet received something in a special state from God, and on the other, he communicated what he received to people. Consequently, the most general principle of prophecy is very different from the principle of priesthood. If the priesthood mediated between God and man and was a representative on the part of man, then prophecy was an organ of revelation on the part of God, through which God always proclaimed His will. Sometimes in the Bible the patriarchs are also called prophets, for example, Abraham (see: Gen. 20:7), but this, of course, is because at that time revelation was almost exclusively for the patriarchs. The patriarchs themselves were their own priests, that is, religious representatives, and they themselves were their own prophets, entering into direct communication with God and receiving special revelations and commands from Him. In general, when we speak of the most ancient times of Jewish history, the times before the Sinaitic legislation, the name “prophet” is taken in a broader sense and denotes anyone who receives some kind of revelation from God. Since the time of the Sinai legislation, the title “prophet” is applied to special persons (see: Num. 11:25, 29). Persons from among the priests are not called prophets, even though they experienced the ordinary action of the Holy Spirit (see: 2 Chron. 24:20).

There is a hint in the Bible that from this time onwards prophets proper appeared (see: Num. 12:6), but mainly from the time of Samuel only extraordinary messengers of God, honored with a special gift of the Holy Spirit and a special revelation of the will of God for communicating it to people, are called prophets. The Bible notes that around the time of Samuel some change took place in the concept of a prophet. In the story of how Saul and his servant went to Samuel to find out where to look for their lost donkeys, the Bible inserts the following remark. Previously in Israel, when someone went to inquire of God, they said thus: “Let us go to the seer (‘ad – haro’e)”; for the one who is now called a prophet (nabi) was formerly called a seer (haro’e) (1 Samuel 9:9). Samuel himself is also called a seer (see: 1 Samuel 9:11-12, 18-19). Representatives of the evolutionary-rationalistic view of the history of the Jewish people draw too many conclusions from the above remark. It is usually assumed that before Samuel, all those persons who are called by the term “prophet” were engaged in fortune-telling, completely corresponding to the mantika of other peoples. These are the persons who were called ro’im. Samuel carried out a radical reform in prophecy, and after him the prophets, having abandoned fortune-telling, began to deliver inspired speeches, engage in theology, keeping chronicles, etc. In accordance with the new activity of the prophets, they received a new name nebi’im. Deuteronomy, where nabi is used, is of course considered a later work. But it is permissible to think that all these conclusions are too decisive. The change in terms, of course, also testifies to the change in the phenomena they denote. In the history of prophecy, a certain development can be noted around the time of Samuel, but the change in terms hardly gives grounds for assuming such a radical change as that described, for example, by Maibaum or Wellhausen. As we have already noted in our analysis of terms, the terms ro’e and nabi do not have mutually exclusive meanings. Ro’e corresponds entirely to nabi in its passive sense, and therefore the change of terms noted in the first book of Kings (1 Samuel 9:9) does not indicate a fundamental change in the institution, but only an ordinary historical evolution of its external forms. Historical circumstances contributed to the fact that earlier prophecy was more an internal experience than an external social activity. Without a doubt, the time of the judges was a rather dark period in Old Testament history: it was, as it were, a reaction after the religious upsurge. After all, wasn’t the time of Moses’ life and work a time of unprecedented religious upsurge, if at the word of the Divine Messenger an entire tribe leaves Egypt, goes to an unknown country, wanders for several decades in the desert, receives the law, a religious order? The exodus of the Jews from Egypt reminds one of how an entire parish in Ibsen’s drama follows the religious enthusiast Brand, leaves its village and goes to an unknown destination. Moses brought his work to an end, but the reaction was bound to come, although not as deadly quickly as in Brand’s not entirely clear and almost aimless work. The reaction did come when the tribe settled in the promised land. The institution of prophecy in the time of the judges was still in its infancy. The prophet, perhaps, was then, as they sometimes say, a “spiritual man,” and the people in the simplicity of their hearts did not consider it reprehensible to go to him for advice on their everyday affairs, even on where to look for their lost donkeys. But with the advent of the period of kings, when the life of the people took on a different, more intense form, prophecy comes forward with its external activity, and therefore the term “nabi” comes into use, which is more in keeping with reality in its active meaning. Therefore, we would dare to assert that the principle of prophecy did not change under Samuel and that prophecy was fundamentally the same throughout biblical history from Moses to Malachi. Throughout Jewish history, the prophet in the Bible is described precisely as a representative or messenger of God. The priest approached the altar either at the demand of the law or at the desire of individuals, but the prophet comes forward to his activity at the direct command of God. The prophet is raised up by the Lord. The Bible uses a special term to denote a prophetic message, namely the hyphilic form of the verb knm (see: Deut. 18:15, 18; Amos 2:11; Jer. 6:17, 29:15; cf.: Judg. 2:16, 18; 3:9, 15). God Himself sent a prophet to speak in His name (see Deut. 18:19), sent prophets to preach (see Judges 6:8-10), sent Nathan to rebuke the king in the presence of the Lord (see 2 Samuel 12:1-12), under Hosea the Lord warned Israel and Judah through the prophets (see 2 Kings 17:13), under Manasseh the Lord spoke through His servants the prophets (2 Kings 21:10, 24:2). The Lord sent prophets to turn to God those who had forgotten God (see 2 Chronicles 24:19), and sent a prophet as a messenger of His wrath against Amaziah (see 2 Chronicles 25:15). In general, the Lord sent His messengers to the Jews from early morning, because He pitied His people and His dwelling place (2 Chronicles 36:15). Sometimes the prophet was heard precisely as one sent by the Lord (see Hag. 1:12). The prophet is sometimes called a man of God (see 1 Samuel 2:27, 9:6; 2 Kings 4:42, 6:6, 9, 8:7; 2 Chronicles 25:7, 9), a prophet of Jehovah (see 2 Kings 3:11), and also an Angel of the Lord (see Judges 2:1–4; Mal. 3:1). All these titles emphasize the fact that the prophet was a representative of God in a religious union. And therefore prophecy depended only on the will of God and was not connected either with origin from a certain tribe, such as the priesthood, or with gender, or with age. Neither human choice, nor hierarchical and civil privileges gave the right to prophecy; such a right was given only by divine election. That is why in the history of the Jewish people we see prophets from different tribes and classes of the people, and prophecy itself did not form a special class. Levites (see 2 Chronicles 20:14), priests (see Jeremiah 1:1), and the children of the high priest (see 2 Chronicles 24:20) were prophets, as were farmers and shepherds who had previously gathered sycamores (see Amos 1:1, 7:14). There are also prophetesses in the Bible (nebi’a – see: Exodus 15:20; 2 Kings 22:14; 2 Chronicles 34:22; Nehemiah 6:14; Judges 4:4). Women were not entirely excluded from prophecy, but prophetesses in the Old Testament are rare exceptions. Three prophetesses are considered: Miriam (see: Exodus 15:20), Deborah (see: Judges 4:4), and Huldah (see: 2 Kings 22:14; 2 Chronicles 34:22). But in Seder Olam, along with 48 prophets, 7 prophetesses are named; in addition to the three named, there are also Sarah, Anna, Abihail, and Esther. Anna is also recognized as a prophetess in the New Testament Christian Church. Concerning the origin of the prophets, the Bible notes only that the prophets are from the Jews; a non-Jewish prophet is excluded from true prophecy, Moses tells the people: God will raise up prophets from among you, from your brethren (Deut. 18:15; cf. 18:18). But the influence of the prophets often extended far beyond the Jewish nation. And other peoples were not neglected and abandoned by God, and for these peoples the Jewish prophets were messengers of God. The prophets act in a wider arena than Palestine, their speeches and deeds have in mind the good of more than just Israel; the prophets spread supernatural revelation outside the true Church7. In the prophets we find speeches concerning almost all the countries and peoples of the East: Babylon (see: Is. 13:1-14; Jer. 50:1-51, 64); Moab (see: Is. 15:1-9, 16:6-14; Jer. 27:3, 48:1-47; Am. 2:1-3); Damascus (see: Is. 17:1-18:7; Jer. 49:23-27); Egypt (see: Is. 19:1-25; Jer. 46:2-24; Ezek. 29:2-16, 19, 30:4-26, 31:2-18, 32:2-32); Tyre (see Isa. 23; Ezek. 27:2–36, 28:2–10, 12–19); Sidon (see Ezek. 28:21–24); Idumea (see Jer. 27:3, 49:7–22; Ezek. 35:2–15; Obad. 1:1–21); Philistines (see Jer. 47:1–7); Ammonites (see Jer. 49:1–6; Amos 1:13); Kedar and the kingdoms of Asher (see Jer. 49:28–33); Elam (see Jer. 49:34–39); The Chaldeans (see Jer. 50:1–51, 64); Ethiopia, Lydia, and Libya (see Ezek. 30:4–26); the land of Magog, the princes of Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal (see Ezek. 38:2–23, 39:1–15); Nineveh (see Jonah 3:1–9; Nahum 1:1–3, 19), and many cities and peoples are touched upon by the speeches of the prophets Zephaniah (see Zeph. 2:4–15), Zechariah (see Zech. 9:1–10), and Daniel. The above list, although incomplete, sufficiently proves that prophecies about other countries and for other peoples were not accidental and exceptional phenomena; no, these prophecies are an essential element of the activity of the prophetic institution. And God Himself tells Jeremiah that He made him a prophet not for the people, but for the nations (see: Jer. 1:5). And this fact in turn confirms our position that prophecy, as it appears in the books of the Old Testament, was the representation of God on earth. The priesthood was a religious-national representation, and it was strictly national. The supranationality of the Old Testament priesthood and of the entire cultic law in general is expressed in the Bible only in the form of a wish for future times (see: 1 Kings 8:41-43; Is. 60:3-14, 62:2, etc.). Prophecy, as an organ of the Deity, was supranational, as God Himself is supranational. As a representative of God, the prophet began his work not by some traditional dedication, like a priest, but by a special calling from God each time. Before this calling, the prophet was an ordinary man, did not know the voice of the Lord, and the word of the Lord was not revealed to him, as the Bible says about Samuel (see: 1 Samuel 3:7). But the Omniscient God had already predetermined a person for prophetic service. Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, and before you came forth from the womb I sanctified you, God said to Jeremiah (Jer. 1:5; cf.: Is. 49:1). At a certain moment in time, God called the prophet to the work of service. The prophetic books describe such callings of some prophets. Calling is not presented in the Bible as violence; on the contrary, sometimes the prophet himself says in advance: Here I am, send me (Is. 6:8), but sometimes he agrees after some hesitation, refusals and exhortations from God, as was the case with the calling of Moses (see: Ex. 3:11-4, 17) and Jeremiah (see: Jer. 1:6-9), exhortations sometimes confirmed by miracles (see: Ex. 4:2–9, 14). Finally, the calling is accomplished by some external sign – by touching the prophet’s lips with a coal from the altar (see Isaiah 6:6) or with the hand (see Jeremiah 1:9), by eating a scroll (see Ezek. 3:1–3), etc. In prophetic callings, it should also be noted from the fundamental point of view that God says: I send (see Exod. 3:12; 2 Sam. 12:1; Isaiah 6:8–9; Jeremiah 1:10, 26:5, 35:15, 44:4; Ezek. 2:3, 3:4–6). All that we have indicated also characterizes prophecy as Divine representation. From the time of the calling, the prophet seemed to change. He was in direct communication with God, a communication which is possible for man only in a special ecstatic state. We do not need to enter into a psychological analysis of the ecstatic state of the prophets. We will only note how the Bible judges it. According to the Bible, man felt as if the hand of the Lord were lying upon him (see 2 Kings 3:15; Ezek. 1:3; Dan. 10:10), sometimes even strongly (see Ezek. 3:14), the prophet felt as if some powerful spirit were entering him (see Ezek. 2:2, 3:24; Is. 61:1). There is no reason to think that the personal life and consciousness of the prophet were suppressed by Divine influence (Genstenberg); On the contrary, there is much biblical evidence that inspiration from God strengthened (cf. Jer. 1:18–19; Is. 49:1–2; 44:26; 50:4; Ezek. 2:2; 3:8–9, 24) the sometimes weakened and wavering prophet (cf. Dan. 10:8; Ezek. 3:14). God Himself every morning… awakens the ear of the prophet, so that he listens like the learned (Is. 50:4). To perceive these suggestions, a special moral sensitivity and receptivity, a special quality of temperament were needed. God sometimes revealed His will to the prophets in dreams (see Num. 12:6, 22:20; Deut. 13:1; 2 Samuel 7:4; Jer. 23:25–32, 27:9; Zech. 10:2. Also here: Gen. 15:12, 28:12, 46:2); such revelations were not limited to the prophets (see Gen. 20:3, 6, 31:24, 37:5, 41:1; Judges 7:13; 1 Kings 3:5; Joel 3:1; Job 33:15). This is how Eliphaz the Temanite describes this direct action of the Deity on the soul. A word came to me secretly, and my ear received something of it. In the midst of my meditations on the visions of the night, when deep sleep falleth upon men, fear and trembling came upon me, and shook all my bones. And a spirit passed over me; my hair stood on end… a small breath, and I heard a voice (Job 4:12-16). But in other cases the action of the Deity was even more intense, apparently even forcing the will of the prophet. The persecutions and insults that Jeremiah suffered (about them see: Jer. 20:1-2, 26:7-9, 11-24, 32:2, etc.) were so grievous that he cried out: Cursed be the day whereon I was born! May the day wherein my mother bare me not be blessed. Cursed be the man who brought my father news, saying, A son is born to you, and gave him great joy (Jer. 20:14–15; cf. Jer. 15:10, 20:16–18). But the power of God drew him, and he could not cease from his activity. “You have drawn me, O Lord,” says the prophet, “and I have been drawn away; You are stronger than I, and have prevailed; and I am a derision daily; everyone mocks me. For as soon as I begin to speak, I cry out against violence, I cry out against destruction… Then I said, I will not make mention of Him, nor speak any more in His name; but there was in my heart as a burning fire shut up in my bones, and I was weary in forbearing it, and I could not” (Jer. 20:7–9). Thus the Lord drew the prophet, as if forcing him to receive revelations. The initiative in prophetic revelations, as is obvious, belonged to God, and this circumstance fundamentally characterizes the essence of prophecy. Above we spoke about the mysterious Urim and Thummim, through which the priests received revelations. But revelation through the Urim and Thummim characterizes the fundamental side of the priesthood, completely opposite to the principles of prophecy; in those revelations the initiative was human. Through the Urim and Thummim people asked God, and through the prophets God spoke to people. However, there are several facts in the Bible that testify to the fact that through the prophets they also asked God, asked the prophet for a vision (see: Ezek. 7:26). Thus, Jehoshaphat says: Is there not here a prophet of the Lord, that we may inquire of the Lord by him (2 Kings 3:11; cf.: 2 Kings 8:8). We have already mentioned the case when the prophet Samuel was asked about the donkeys. Cases where God was asked through a prophet can be regarded as actual abuses due to ignorance. Jehoshaphat, surrounded by false soothsayers, could look upon the prophet as a similar soothsayer. The prophets satisfied the demands of asking God. Every great man pays tribute to the shortcomings of the time and environment. It is remarkable that when Elisha was called to Jehoshaphat, the prophet says: Call me a harpist. And when the harpist played on the harp, then the hand of the Lord touched Elisha (2 Kings 3:15). It can be assumed that in this case the prophet does what is required of him and what is expected. Of course, he could have had a special purpose and wanted to take advantage of the opportunity. But in general, cases where the Lord was asked through prophets are very few, and all of them represent some deviations from the principle under the influence of circumstances. There is nothing in the Bible that says that they will ask about the Urim and Thummim (see: Num. 27:21). According to the principle of prophecy, it is God who speaks through the prophet when He wishes, and not when He is asked. Prayer for the people corresponds more to the principles of prophecy than questioning the people. We encounter prayer many times in the history of the prophets (see: Ex. 32:30-32; Is. 37:2-7; Jer. 37:3, 42:2-6); sometimes the prophets were addressed so that they would pray, for example, Zedekiah addressed Jeremiah through Jehucal (see: Jer. 37:3). Thus, the prophet was precisely God’s messenger, he said what and when God commanded him to say. The prophet was the mouth of the Lord (see: Jer. 15:19) and proclaimed the word of God. It is impossible to count how many times it is said about the prophets that they proclaimed precisely the word of God; in the book of the prophet Jeremiah alone this expression occurs up to 48 times. Therefore, we must accept the position that religious creativity fundamentally enters into prophecy. The priest himself is guided by the letter of the law and teaches others the word of the law; the prophet is guided by the will of God, by special revelations, and communicates the word of God to others. The priest is the representative of the law; the prophet is the representative of the word of God. These two concepts do not coincide not only in the Old Testament, but always and everywhere. The relationship of prophecy to the law can best clarify the fundamental relationship between prophecy and the priesthood. The law is the point that both the priesthood and prophecy touch upon with their fundamental aspects, and therefore their mutual relationship is especially clearly reflected in the relationship of both institutions to the law. Several points can be noted in the relationship of prophecy to the law. First of all, the law itself is presented in the Bible as given by God precisely through prophecy and by its mediation. Throughout the Old Testament there runs a thought, briefly expressed in the book of the Wisdom of Solomon: The wisdom of God ordered their (the Jews’) affairs by the hand of the holy prophet (Wis. 11:1). In general, the Jewish lawgiver Moses is called a prophet in the Bible in the highest sense of the word. Moses is, as it were, a certain ideal type of prophet. Although it is noted that Israel had no other prophet like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face (Deut. 34:10), prophets are always likened to Moses. Moses himself said to the people: The Lord your God will raise up for you a Prophet from among you, from your brethren, like me (Deut. 18:15), and Jehovah himself said to Moses: I will raise them up a Prophet from among their brethren, like unto you, and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak unto them all that I shall command him (Deut. 18:18). Usually these two places in Deuteronomy are considered as messianic, but, in any case, the immediate meaning of these expressions is historical, concerning the whole prophecy, and the features indicated in this place can be applied to every prophet (Kьreg). God promises the Jews to raise up the leaders they need, like Moses. Thus, the Bible looks upon the subsequent prophecy as the continuers of the work of Moses, as the continuers of the legislation. A true prophet is destined for the same activity as Moses: prophetic activity is creative, legislative activity, and in the Hebrew Bible we see the books of the law and the prophets side by side. The law and the prophets (thora ve nebi’im) – that is the Old Testament Divine revelation. The law outlined all the activities of the Jewish people. The priests were supposed to teach everyone the law, who in turn were supposed to fulfill many things concerning their law. The law was given so that the people and the priests would fulfill it. The teacher of the law Moses himself very strictly monitored the fulfillment of this law during his lifetime, sometimes down to the smallest details (see: Lev. 10:16-18), and convinced the people not to forget the law (see: Deut. 29:2-30). We see the same thing in the activity of later prophecy. The priesthood itself was very unstable in the law. The priests stumbled with strong drink, they were overcome with wine, they became mad with strong drink (see Isa. 28:1); they did not say, “Where is the Lord?” and the teachers of the law did not know God, the shepherds fell away from Him (Jer. 2:8). They heal the wounds of the people lightly, saying, “Peace, peace!” but there is no peace. Are they ashamed when they commit abominations? No, they are not ashamed at all, nor do they blush (Jer. 6:14-15, 8:11-12). The law about Levitical uncleanness, about the Sabbath (see Ezek. 22:26), about firstfruits and tithes was forgotten; the priests robbed God (see Mal. 3:8), defiled the holy things and generally trampled on the law (see Zeph. 3:4). And the law itself, as always and everywhere, was turned into a lie by the cunning reed of the scribes (see Jer. 8:8). The people forgot their religion and turned to foreign cults. In the history of the religious life of the people, a phenomenon appeared, known in the history of religion as syncretism or theocrasy, and in political life, alliances with pagan peoples began to take place. The prophets constantly fought against such a departure from God and the law given by Him, constantly protecting the people from forgetting the law; they were the guardians of the house of Israel. Through the prophet the Lord brought Israel out of Egypt, and through the prophet He protected them (Hos. 12:13). The prophets denounce every departure from the law, general and particular. The prophet denounces Benadar, who spared the accursed (see 1 Kings 20:35–43). Elijah rebukes King Ahaziah, who sent to inquire of Beelzebub, the deity of Ekron (see: 2 Kings 1:2–4).

Elijah was appointed to denounce in his times (Sir. 48:10), he was like fire, and his word burned like a torch (Sir. 48:1). Jeremiah was established as a fortified city, and an iron pillar, and a brazen wall… against the kings of Judah, against its princes, against its priests, and against the people of the land (Jer. 1:18). The prophet justified his appointment. He denounces idolatry, reminds us of the covenant (see Jer. 12:2–8), advocates for the observance of the Sabbath (see Jer. 17:21–27), preaches to the priests and elders in the valley of the son of Hinnom (see Jer. 19:1–13) and in the court of the house of the Lord (see Jer. 19:14–15). The prophet proclaims woe to those who go down to Egypt for help (Isaiah 31:1). The prophets proclaim woe to the shepherds of the people (see Jeremiah 23:1–2), calling them to judgment with God (see Exodus 5:3; Ezek. 34:2–31; Micah 6:1–2; Hos. 5:1) for having laid waste the vineyard of God (see Isaiah 3:14; Jeremiah 2:9), threatening them with the curse of God if they do not apply their hearts to what they hear (see Mal. 2:1–2). Ezekiel almost literally repeats some laws that had obviously been thoroughly forgotten by the priests (see Ezek. 44:9–46). If the prophets denounce the priests, threaten them with judgment and condemnation, then it is obvious that prophecy is the highest institution, which was like a permanent auditor or controller, watching over the execution of the law. The people lived according to the law and in this life were headed by the priesthood, but sometimes both the people and the priesthood deviated from the paths of the law. Then God admonished the people through His representatives – the prophets. These earthly representatives of Jehovah, naturally, were higher than the people’s representatives – the priests; the initiative and leadership in the religious covenant must belong to God. God gave the law; He also excites people to fulfill this law, excites them with exhortations and threats. As the law was given through prophecy, so through prophecy God also took care that the people fulfilled this law for their own good. In this regard, the activity of the prophets was brought to a perfect end by the incarnate Son of God, in whose work the ancient dogmatists, among other things, singled out the prophetic ministry. But the relationship of prophecy to the law was not limited to supporting the law. The law set forth the norm of the relationship between God and Israel. The lofty religious and moral truths in the law were given in an external form accessible to the people. The law developed a purely external formalism. The priesthood served this legal formalism. But legal formalism was supposed to serve only as a means for educating the people and their internal renewal. It was necessary to clarify the spirit of all legal formality and ritual, to indicate the spirit of the legal letter, the internal truth in external form. The true meaning of the law could not quickly and immediately become the property of the people; the education of the people and the clarification in their consciousness of the internal meaning of the law could only proceed slowly and gradually, but it had to proceed. Prophecy served this high purpose of the law. The task of prophecy was to develop the religious and moral consciousness of the people in connection with the law (see: Deut. 12:2-4) by gradually revealing the pure truths of the law. The task of prophecy in relation to the people who already had the law and fulfilled it in one way or another was moral and pedagogical; it consisted of “religious and moral education, in reviving the dead formalism of the law and revealing its spiritual meaning in application to the circumstances of the people’s life. Old Testament prophecy was the spirit that revived legal formalism” (Verzhbolovich)8. In their inner understanding of the law, the prophets rose to concepts almost similar to those of the New Testament. In this regard, the prophets were also the predecessors of Christ, Who Himself came precisely to fulfill the law (see: Matthew 5:17), to show its idea, its intention, to bring it to its complete end. The moral interpretation of the law by the prophets reveals high moral concepts in this law. The Prophet Isaiah takes up arms against the prevailing nomism: Precept upon precept, line upon line; here a little, and there a little (Isaiah 28:10, 13). The prophet is also outraged by the purely external worship of God, by which the people draw near to God, but their hearts are far from God (see Isaiah 29:13). To what purpose do I have the multitude of your sacrifices? says the Lord. I have had enough of burnt offerings of rams, and of the fat of fatlings; and I do not delight in the blood of bulls, or of lambs, or of goats. … Who requires this of you, that ye trample My courts (Isaiah 1:11–12)? Can the Lord be pleased with thousands of rams, or with countless streams of oil (Micah 6:7)? God desires mercy, not sacrifice, and the knowledge of God more than burnt offerings (Hosea 6:6). And therefore the prophets speak of another, higher sacrifice to God. O man! it has been shown to you what is good, and what does the Lord require of you but to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with your God (Micah 6:8). Learn to do good, seek justice, save the oppressed, defend the orphan, plead for the widow (Isaiah 1:17); execute just judgment and show mercy and compassion every one to his brother – el ahiv (Zechariah 7:9; but ah (brother) is the same here – ben-ab or ben-em, that is, the son of the father or the mother’s son?). Instead of streams of oil, let judgment roll down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream (Amos 5:24).

The concept of kadosch in the sense of Levitical impurity receives the highest ethical meaning in the prophets. Wash yourselves, cleanse yourselves; put away the evil of your deeds from before My eyes; cease to do evil (Isaiah 1:16). Sometimes the prophets understand purity and holiness in a completely evangelical sense. Thus, Zechariah says: Do not think evil in your hearts toward one another (Zechariah 7:10; cf. Matt. 5:39). The prophets also attach an equally high meaning to fasting, exactly the same as the well-known Lenten sticheron and the one composed of prophetic expressions9. When the priests were asked whether to fast, the prophet Zechariah, on behalf of God, says: Have you fasted for Me? for Me? And when you eat and when you drink, do you not eat for yourselves and drink for yourselves? Did not the Lord speak these words through the former prophets? (Zechariah 7:5–7). And what did the Lord speak through the former prophets? Behold, you fast for strife and contention… Is this the fast that I have chosen?… This is the fast that I have chosen: to loose the bonds of wickedness, to undo the heavy burdens, and to let the oppressed go free, and to break every yoke. Deal your bread to the hungry, and bring the poor that are cast out into your house. When you see the naked, cover him, and do not hide yourself from your own flesh. Then shall your light break forth as the morning, and your health shall spring forth speedily, and your righteousness shall go before you, and the glory of the Lord shall be your rear guard (Isaiah 58:4–8). Thus, in the mouths of the prophets, the dry bones of the law received not only flesh and sinew, but also spirit. This spirit the prophets tried to put in place of the nomism and severity of the law; they proclaim woe to those who enact unjust laws and write cruel decisions (Isaiah 10:1). In such a spiritualization of the law lay, mainly, the religious creativity of the prophets. The priest had to fulfill the law as it was written; nothing more is required of him, but the prophet understands the spirit and intention of the law. If the priest was a teacher of the people, then the prophet could also be a teacher of the priesthood. The prophets did not limit themselves only to teaching and preaching; they also organized life around themselves on purely religious principles. Zealots of the faith gathered around the prophets, and the prophets guided their lives. We mean the so-called prophetic schools. When using this term, one should not forget the remark of Metropolitan Philaret that it was invented by the Germans, who believe that there is nothing better than their universities. When speaking about prophetic schools, one should completely abandon modern ideas about schools. Prophetic schools, called the hosts of the prophets (see: 1 Samuel 10:5, 10, 19:19-24) and the sons of the prophets (see: 2 Kings 4:1, etc.), can only be imagined as religious educational and upbringing institutes that had a kind of monastic order of common life10. The activity of the prophets in relation to these prophetic schools can be imagined as follows. People of a pious disposition, zealots of the law, gathered around the prophets, forming a closer circle of disciples. In this circle, the members led a special religious life. The prophet stood at the head of these hosts, directed religious education and upbringing, and was always a wise mentor in religious and moral life. The prophets gathered the best part of the people around themselves, and the sons of the prophets could be mentors for others, the religious and moral support of their time. By gathering religious people around themselves and developing them in a religious and moral direction, the prophets achieved that some of the sons of the prophets themselves were honored with revelations and could be assistants to the prophets in the work of their ministry. The Bible has preserved one case when Elisha the prophet called one of the sons of the prophets and said to him: gird up your loins, and take this vessel of oil in your hand, and go to Ramoth-Gilead… Anoint Jehu the son of Jehoshaphat, the son of Nimshi… to be king over Israel (2 Kings 9:1-3). Thus, the prophets were not only the mainstay of their time, but they also gathered people of good will around them. Therefore, the prophets were the chariot of Israel and its horsemen. When Elisha died, Joash, the king of Israel, came to him and wept over him, and said, My father! my father! the chariot of Israel and its horsemen! (2 Kings 13:14). And the twelve prophets – may their bones flourish from their place! … saved Jacob through sure hope (Sir. 49:12). Such was the activity of the Divine messengers-prophets. They always stood at the height of their position and calling. The people fell, the priests fell, but the prophets were always the spiritual leaders of the people; their voice always and invariably resounded like thunder, and forced the people to come to their senses and correct themselves. The people who had fallen away from God often wanted to see in the prophet only a funny singer with a pleasant voice (see: Ezek. 33:32), they wanted to hear only what lulled the slumbering conscience. If any prophet predicted peace, then only he was recognized as a prophet (Jer. 28:9). Prophets were required not to prophesy the truth, but to speak only flattering things: Get out of the way, turn aside from the path; remove the Holy One of Israel from our sight (Is. 30:10-11). Such demands were combined with threats, for example, the men of Anathoth said: Do not prophesy in the name of the Lord, lest you die by our hands (Jer. 11:21).

Shemaiah the Nehelamite wrote to Jerusalem: Why then do you not forbid Jeremiah the Anathothite from prophesying among you? (Jer. 29:25–32) Prophets were also persecuted. Pashur the son of Emmer, a priest who was also an overseer in the house of the Lord… struck… Jeremiah… and put him in the stocks (mahpechel – 2 Chronicles 16:10), which were at the upper gate of Benjamin (Jer. 20:1–2); Zedekiah locked up the same prophet in the courtyard of the guard (see Jer. 32:2); the priests and prophets and all the people, after one speech by Jeremiah, seized him and said: You must die! – demanding the death sentence for the prophet (see Jer. 26:7–11). The life of a prophet was hard (see: Jer. 20:14-15), but nothing forced the prophet to change his calling; he was always like fire, and his word always burned like a lamp (Sir. 48:1). The priests, as we have already noted, were often completely subordinate to state power, participated in the political struggle of dynasties and parties. Prophecy was different. Prophecy participated only in the struggle between good and evil. About prophecy in general, we can say what Sirach says about the prophet Elisha: He did not tremble before the prince … nothing prevailed against him (Sir. 48:13-14), and also what the Lord says about Jeremiah: They will fight against you, but they will not prevail against you (Jer. 1:19). From the very concept of prophecy it follows that one cannot be called a prophet who is unworthy of it. The names “false prophet” or “unworthy prophet” are completely incomprehensible. A false prophet is a contradictio in adjecto; a false one, therefore, is not a prophet, not sent by God, and if a prophet allows himself to be deceived and speaks a word as I, the Lord, have taught this prophet, then I will stretch out My hand against him and destroy him from among My people Israel, said Jehovah (Ezek. 14:9). A false prophet is not a prophet, is unworthy of his name and title, he is an impostor, a deceiver, an imitation. That is why the Bible gives its signs by which imitation can be distinguished from real prophecy. There are two such signs: 1) the prophecy of a false prophet is not fulfilled, and 2) he speaks in the name of other gods. Both of these signs must be present together: a true prophet must both speak in the name of Jehovah, and his prophecy must be fulfilled. “How shall we know the word which the LORD hath not spoken?” If a prophet speak in the name of the LORD, and the word do not come to pass or come true, that is the word which the LORD has not spoken, but the prophet has spoken it presumptuously. You shall not be afraid of him (Deut. 18:21-22). The LORD makes the sign of the false prophets of nought and exposes the madness of the sorcerers… but confirms the word of His servant and brings to pass the utterance of His messengers (Is. 44:25-26). The criterion indicated was generally used (see Is. 5:19; Jer. 17:15, 28:9; Ezek. 12:22, 33:33). Whatever he says comes to pass – this is a clear sign of the truth of the prophet (see: 1 Sam. 3:19, 9:6). The prophets themselves indicated that their prophecies were coming true (see 1 Kings 22:28; Zech. 1:6; cf. John 10:37–38, 15:24). A true prophet speaks in the name of Jehovah alone: ​​but he who speaks in the name of other gods is not a prophet, even though his word happen to come true. If a prophet shows you a sign or a wonder, and that sign or wonder comes true, but if he says at the same time, “Let us go after other gods which you have not known, and let us serve them,” then do not listen to the words of that prophet (Deut. 13:1–3), put that prophet to death (Deut. 18:20), for what has the chaff in common with the pure grain? (Jer. 13:28). As can be seen from these signs, prophecy can only be true, the rest is only self-proclaimed imitation, which must be exposed. A priest remains a priest, even if he is unworthy of his calling; he becomes a priest by his very birth from the descendant of Aaron. A prophet, if he is unworthy, is no longer a prophet; no one can take prophecy upon himself, but only a special one “called by God.”

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, let us summarize everything that has been said about the principles of the Old Testament priesthood and prophecy. The priest is the people’s representative and advocate in religious life; the prophet is the Divine messenger and leader of the people. The priest is the executor of the law, and through prophecy God establishes this law and spiritualizes it. Religious creativity belongs to prophecy, and the priesthood experiences the results of this creativity together with the people. If we pay attention to the relationship between prophecy and the priesthood, then we cannot consider one institution an addition to the other, we cannot look at prophecy as one, far from the first of the hierarchical degrees. No, prophecy and priesthood are independent and separate institutions, each with its own principles. The following brief definition of the fundamental relationship between the priesthood and prophecy suggests itself: the priesthood is the bearer and personification of religious life; prophecy is the bearer of religious ideals. Ideals are heavenly, and life is always earthly. Ideals are always far ahead of everyday life; everyday life always lags behind ideals. But ideals can be realized only through everyday life; without ideals everyday life cannot develop. When ideals fly away from the earth, then all life dies, then God leaves or forgets the earth. The Bible considers the loss of prophecy to be such a punishment from God for the earth. For the sins of the people, prophets are not granted visions (Lam. 2:9). The prophets speak of the times when visions and prophecy are sealed (see Dan. 9:24) as times of punishment – ​​times when God turns away His face (see Ezek. 7:22): One evil shall follow another… and they shall ask a vision of the prophet, but there shall be no… counsel of the elders… I will deal with them according to their ways, and according to their judgments will I judge them (Ezek. 7:26–27). The time when there is no prophet, although there is a priesthood, is a dark time, then people are left without heavenly guidance, which the priesthood also needs. And that is why it is said in the psalm: Why, O God, hast thou cast us off forever? Is thy wrath kindled against the sheep of thy pasture?.. We see not our signs… there is no prophet any more, neither is there with us that knoweth how long these things shall be (Ps. 74:1, 9). And there was great tribulation in Israel, such as had not been since there was no prophet among them (1 Macc. 9:27).

Notes:

4. Ro’e is a participle of the verb rа’а, which means to see in general. In a more closely religious sense, ga’a is used in application to that direct perception of the Deity which is called the sight of the Deity. Ra’a is used in the Old Testament whenever it is said that man cannot see God (see Is. 6:5; Ex. 33:21 et seq.), and also when it speaks of certain cases where people saw the back of Jehovah (see Ex. 33:23). Thus Hagar says: I have seen in the wake (ra’iti) of him who sees me. And Hagar called the spring be’er lahaj ro’i (see Gen. 16:13-14). Finally, ga’a is used in connection with visions and revelations (see Is. 30:10), which is why mar’a also means vision. The participial form ro’e also designates a prophet as a person who receives revelations, who has visions. Ro’e characterizes the subjective side of prophecy, the inner relationship of the prophet to God, but this term does not define the relationship of the prophet to people, the external side of prophecy. Another term, “hoze”, less frequently used than all the others, also shades a more internal state of the prophet, and the external expression of his internal state is defined by the term hoze in a very original way. The verb haza means: 1) to see in a dream and 2) to talk in a dream, to rave. The corresponding Arabic verb haza (which has two spellings) has exactly the same meaning. According to its philological meaning, haza can only mean the lowest form of both prophetic communication and prophetic perception. Sometimes in the Bible hoze is used in exactly this sense. Isaiah describes in the darkest colors the unworthy guards of Israel, who have a penchant for alcoholic beverages (see: Isaiah 56:12). It is precisely such people that Isaiah calls, among other things, hozim – dreamers, raveers. The LXX translates nupniastmena, Aquila – fantasТmena, Symmachus – Рramatista…, Slav.: seeing dreams on a bed. Prophetic perception is compared with a dream by the term hoze, and the external expression of the perceived – with delirium. But, it can be said, the special name for the prophet in the books of the Old Testament is “nabi”, and this term more than others characterizes the concept itself. The word nabi comes from the unused verbal root naba (aleph at the end). According to the general Semitic meaning (the corresponding Arabic verb naba), this combination of sounds (nun + bet + aleph) means an obsessive forced action of some object on vision, and in relation to the organ of hearing, this word characterizes speech that is pronounced with a kind of necessity for both the speaker and the listener, sometimes it means inarticulate speech under the influence of internal causes (glossolalia). To explain the meaning of naba, the commonly used verb naba (with “ayn” at the end) can serve, which means – to quickly flow out, pour out, gush. In the last sense, “naba” is used in relation to sources of water; thus, the source of wisdom is called a flowing stream (nahal nobea – Prov. 18:4). In the hyphil form, naba means primarily “to pour out the Spirit” (see: Prov. 1:23) and especially the words: so the mouth of fools pours out (nabia’) folly and evil (Prov. 15:2, 28). In general, in relation to words, naba means – to utter, to proclaim (see: Ps. 119:171, 144:7). In addition, from the biblical use of naba follows another shade of its meaning, namely, the use of this verb in Ps. 18:3, 78:2, 144:7 gives it the meaning – to teach, to instruct. The same meaning is indicated by the use of the active form hyphil. There are also several related verbs in Hebrew. These are nabab (Arabic nabba), naba (ending in “ge”), nub, and some Hebraists also include na’am in this series. All these verbs have one common meaning – to beat out with a spring, to pour out. Some of these verbs are used to denote human speech, as, for example, nub in Proverbs 10:31. What has been said can be generalized as follows: naba and related verbs mean an inspired, elevated state of a person, as a result of which he pours out rapid, inspired speech. The first point – the elevation of the general mental state is especially noted by the form hithpal from naba, which in the Bible means – to go mad, to rage, to be inspired, corresponding to the Greek ma…nesqai (cf.: 1 Cor. 14:23). Saul was possessed (hitnabbe) when an evil spirit attacked him (see: 1 Samuel 18:10). Therefore, in the noun nabi it is necessary to distinguish its passive sense; the very state of the inspired is passive. The verb naba, as already noted, has, among other things, the meaning of – to teach, hence also the passive meaning of nabi – taught. Indeed, in the Bible prophets are sometimes called disciples – limmud (see: Is. 8:16; 50:4). The same passive meaning is also found in the Greek profiteo, which Greek writers sometimes use to denote an echo that is heard, for example, in caves. However, one should not exaggerate the passive meaning of the Hebrew nabi, as some do, overestimating the meaning of the form hitpael – hitnabbe and giving the verb naba itself the meaning – “to be ecstatic”; about true prophets hitnabbe is used in the Bible only three times (see: Jer. 29:26–27, 26:20; Ezek. 37:10). And the very form hitnabbe is interpreted by some in the active sense – “to be a prophet” (Konig, Dillmann). The Bible also clearly notes the active meaning of the word nabi. This word is used to denote a person speaking with animation, so that the meaning of nabi is close to the meaning of our word “orator” (see: Amos 3:8; Ezek. 11:13). The passive meaning “taught” is opposed to the active meaning “teaching”. From the passive participle “taught” even in Russian the verbal noun “scholar” was developed, which also has an active meaning. In the sense of an interpreter, teaching or clarifying something for others, nabi is used, for example, in Deut. 13:2.

5. F. Vladimirsky. The State of the Prophet’s Soul at the Revelation of the Holy Spirit. Kharkov, 1902. pp. 18, 39-40. A. P. Lopukhin. Biblical history in the light of the latest research and discoveries. Vol. 2. St. Petersburg, 1890. P. 693 and others.

6. Real-Encyclopedia fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche / Herausgeg. von Herzog. 2-te Aufl. Bd. 12. P. 284.

7. Prof. S. S. Glagolev speaks about this side of the Old Testament prophecy. Supernatural revelation and natural knowledge of God outside the true Church. Kharkov, 1900. P. 105, 76 and following.

8. See in detail in the article: The attitude of the prophets to the ritual law of Moses. – Readings in the Society of Lovers of Spiritual Enlightenment. 1889. I. P. 217-257.

9. Stichera 1 on the stichera, ch. 3rd: “Let us fast with a fast that is pleasing to the Lord: true fasting is the rejection of evil, abstinence from the tongue, the rejection of anger, the excommunication of lusts, slander, lies and perjury; the depletion of these is the true and pleasing fast.” – Ed.

10. For more details, see: Vladimir Troitsky. Old Testament Prophetic Schools. – Faith and Reason. 1908. No. 18. Pp. 727–740; No. 19. Pp. 9–20; No. 20. Pp. 188–201.

Source in Russian: Works: in 3 volumes / Hieromartyr Hilarion (Troitsky). – M.: Publishing house of Sretensky Monastery, 2004. / V. 2: Theological works. / Basic principles of the Old Testament priesthood and prophecy. 33-64 p. ISBN 5-7533-0329-3